Essay on Industrial Psychology

This article provides an essay on Industrial Psychology. After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Definition and Concept of Industrial Psychology 2. Aims and Objectives of Industrial Psychology 3. Scope 4. Individual and Group 5. Individual Differences in Behaviour 6. Group Dynamics 7. Theory X and Y 8. Hawthorne Experiment 9. Morale 10. Motivation and Other Details.

Definition and Concept of Industrial Psychology:

Industrial psychology is the study of men at work as individuals and in groups and of the relationship between individuals and groups. Industrial psychology is concerned with the study of human behaviour in different aspects of industry and business, e.g., production, distribution and use of the goods and services of the civilization.

Industrial psychology studies human behaviour in order to obtain information that can be applied to the very practical objectives of helping to resolve industrial problems.

Aims and Objectives of Industrial Psychology:

1. To improve the situation on the job.

2. To affect high morale and enthusiasm at work.

3. To restore the mental health of upset and confused individuals.

4. To remove risks to health or threats to safety.

5. To increase efficiency of people at work.

6. To increase productivity and hence the profits.

Scope of Industrial Psychology:

In industry, psychology is applied:

1. To understand the culture-pattern of a working group or the commonly accepted attitudes and standards to which the individual must conform if he is to be accepted as a member.

2. In connection with human problems associated with aspects of human work, including:

i. Employee selection and placement.

ii. Employee training and development.

iii. Attitude, Morale and Motivation.

iv. Supervision and evaluation.

v. Measurement of various kinds of human ability.

3. To related problems of organizations.

a. Financial remuneration.

b. Working conditions (environments).

c. Equipment design.

4. In connection with market research, sales and advertising.

5. To organizational behaviour.

6. In connection with Programme Development (research) and individual evaluation (consulting).

7. To find facts about existing methods and the development of better methods, e.g., new interview­ing methods, different application blanks, etc.

Individual and Group:

An individual is one whose performance is affected solely by his own characteristics such as brain, abilities, qualifications, motivation, adjustment, etc. Every individual is different from the other and each individual possesses a unique hierarchy of motives and a unique way of behaving. Individuals collect and form groups within which they live.

Groups may be classed as:

(i) Primary groups, where individuals are in face-to-face relationships with each other, where they interact directly and have some liberty of action in interpreting the roles required of them.

(ii) Secondary groups, where the relationships are more of contractual nature and where the roles must be played out in a more impersonal and stereotyped manner. Industries normally require secondary grouping of their employees which are not always satisfy­ing to the individual.

Individual Differences in Behaviour:

Individuals differ from one another in dozens of ways. Differences are present as regards physical appearance, abilities, education, aptitude, etc. Individuals differ and therefore, in industry, they are paid at different rates. One learns with little efforts and practice whereas another is not able to pick up so fast.

The differences in individuals reflect in their performance and behaviour at work. Individual differences in behaviour, if (they are) identified and measured, help much in right selection, placement and imparting proper training to the individuals. Action or a peculiar behaviour of an individual to a particular situation is seldom spontaneous; it does have a cause behind.

Research in behaviour in industry aims at discovering:

(i) Causes of behaviour, or

(ii) The factors which are correlated with behaviour even though they are not causative.

For any given aspect of individual behaviour, there may be many contributing factors. If any aspect, factor or variable of individuals is subjected to measurement and plotted, the measured trait (e.g.. ability, muscular coordination, work performance, etc.) forms a distribution resembling a Normal Distribution and individuals fall at different points along the performance continuum (i.e., the X-axis).

Fig. 19.1 shows a normal distribution curve:

Fig. 19.1 shows that about 50% individuals are near average in ability. It is these employees that a supervisor is most likely to understand and it is their performance that creates in the supervisor the notion of what he can expect in the form of a day’s work. 25% individuals below average in ability are problem us because either they complete less than what is expected of them or, if under supervisor’s urge they tend to produce more, they do it at the cost of quality or safety. 25% individuals above average in ability also create problems sometimes as it is difficult to keep them busy; they may finish a day’s work soon and refuse to do more work and thus cause difficulties for the supervisor by keeping themselves free (i.e., without work) for the rest of the day. The individuals differ from each other in certain aspects which are termed as Individual Variables.

Individual variables play a major role and influence the performance of an employee at work Individuals variables are:

1. Physical characteristics:

Heredity would seem to be of most importance in determining physical characteristics such as height, weight and strength.

2. Intellectual factors:

a. By intelligence is meant ability to learn.

b. Differences in intelligence, also, are distributed as the Normal Distribution.

3. Interest and motivation:

An individual interested in a particular job will accomplish it in a better manner. Therefore, selection and placement of the employee should depend in part on his interests. OR the job may be modified to fit his interests. OR the employee should be motivated (financially or otherwise) to do that job.

4. Temperament:

By temperament is meant excitability of response-the degree to which an individual responds with emotion.

5. Character:

Character implies honesty-resistance to stealing, to lying and to cheating where money is involved.

6. Aptitude.

7. Personality characteristics.

8. Education.

9. Experience.

10. Age.

11. Sex.

Besides individual variables, there are some Situational Variables also which influence the performance (behaviour) of an employee on a given job.

Situational variables are:

(a) Physical and job variables:

1. Physical environment.

2. Work space and layout.

3. Design and condition of work equipment.

4. Methods of work.

(b) Organizational and social variables:

1. Character of organization.

2. Kind of training and supervision.

3. Types of incentives.

4. Social environment.

Group Dynamics-Human Behaviour under Group Influence-Group Behaviour:

Many jobs in industries, e.g., riveting, forging, maintenance work, etc., require a collective effort on the part of employees to achieve the goals of the organisation. This leads to the formation of Formal Groups in the industry and such groups are set up by the organisation itself. Besides formal groups, individuals because of their social needs, common interests, security and some psychological factors tend to collect themselves in what are known as Informal Groups.

Characteristics of Group Behaviour:

(i) It has been observed that an employee behaves differently, when acting as an individual, than when as a member of a group.

(ii) Group influences and changes the attitude and behaviour of an individual towards work and towards the organisation.

(iii) Every group has its characteristics culture-pattern to which the individual must conform if he is to remain a member.

(iv) Groups differ in their degree of cohesiveness. Some are loosely bound, they slowly disintegrate and vanish whereas other groups are strong, effective and possess active support of most members.

(v) In case of difference in opinion in a group, the extremists face pressure to change or modify their opinions.

This pressure is more effective in high-cohesive groups.

The extremists either modify their views or leave the group.

(vi) In a group, the persons who try hardest to influence others, are generally most willing to accept the opinions of others.

The understanding of group characteristics as explained above and otherwise is very essential for the management to maintain good human relations. Group behaviour may be beneficial as well as detrimental for the organisation and management.

Group may influence the behaviour of those in the group as regards absenteeism, restriction of work output, etc., such restrictions being invisible, unwritten and informal. The possibility of group influence being contrary to the interests of management has tended to cause the managements of some enterprises to view dimly the development of strong, integrated groups within the organisation.

Group Dynamics:

Group dynamics is an expression that describes the situation in which persons working together in a group accomplish certain things, either positively or negatively, in a way that cannot be explained adequately in terms of the individual acting separately. Group dynamics describes the interaction between members within a work group and the concurrent changes of their attitudes, behaviour and relationships; similarly, the interaction – and changing attitudes, behaviour and relationships-between an employee work group and others outside the group, in particular the supervisor/foreman.

The term Group dynamics is applied to the forces brought to bear by individuals, singly or collectively, in a group activity. The work dynamics implies change. Group dynamics emphasizes the influence of groups, group behaviour and inter-group conflict. The Lewin group dynamics analysis has been influential in shaping modern administrative theory. It has emphasized the persistent development and influence of informal organization, it has highlighted the role of group norms of behaviour and has suggested the importance of these variables in the working environment in so far as they contribute to the individual’s feeling of security and the assurance with which he can predict the behaviour of associates.

Group dynamics focuses a team work-team spirit which has an extensive history in military units and among athletic teams but has fairly recent applications in industry. Members of group remain in constant touch with each other, mutually discuss and furnish suggestions in order to achieve the company goals effectively. The group has common objectives to reach at.

A Group:

(i) Provides security to its members from outside pressure;

(ii) Provides companionship at or after the work;

(iii) Provides norms (guides) for behaviour;

(iv) Provides a personal touch or relationship;

(v) Provides identity to its members and builds up their morale; and

(vi) Imparts job satisfaction to its members.

Theory X and Y:

(a) Theory-X:

According to theory-X put forward by Douglas McGregor, the traditional framework for manage­ment thinking is based upon certain assumptions about human nature and human behaviour.

It is an essentially negative approach to human relations in which a supervisor presumes that:

i. The average person does not like to work and will avoid it if he can.

ii. For this reason, most persons must be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punish­ment so that they start putting efforts to achieve goals of the organization.

iii. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all. Therefore, employees must be pushed constantly and threatened with loss of security and other punishments when they do not produce.

(b) Theory-Y:

Theory-Y bases itself on recently accumulated knowledge about human behaviour. Theory-Y is an essentially positive approach to human relations in which the supervisor integrates the needs of his subordinates with the needs of his department. He presumes that the assumptions made in Theory-X do not portray the correct human nature and behaviour. Theory-Y emphasizes on satisfying the needs of employees so that they willingly commit to the goals of the organization. Theory-Y promotes good human relations and an atmosphere of good mutual understanding and cooperation.

The assumptions of theory-Y as given by D. McGregor are as follows:

1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as in play or rest. The average human beings do not dislike work, given meaningful work, they will try hard to achieve.

2. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means to bring about efforts towards organizational goals. Satisfied persons will themselves exert self-control in seeking to attain them.

3. Commitment to organizational goals depends upon the rewards associated with their achievement. The most important rewards being those which satisfy needs for self-respect and personal improvement.

4. The average man learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but also to seek responsibility.

5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely (not narrowly) distributed in the popula­tion (people).

6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average men are only partially utilized.

Hawthorne Experiment:

The most famous of all human relations movement and research were the Hawthorne experi­ments (so named because they were carried on in the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company of Chicago, U.S.A.) Dr. Elton Mayo led a team from Harvard University which cooperated with the Western Electric Co., in the period 1927-1936 to carry out Hawthorne experiments.

The Hawthorne experiments:

1. Recognised the importance of employee-attitudes-such as understanding, voluntary cooperation and willing dedication-in the accomplishment of organizational goals.

2. Found that employee performance is very much influenced by his attitude towards his job, associates and management.

3. Proved that the organization/firm can gain only when its employees are satisfied and contented in their jobs.

4. Pointed out that any change to be made should be explained and its meaning should be made clear to the employees.

The fact that a change is logical is not enough, because the employees may not appreciate the logic.

5. Explored much of the information on group behaviour.

6. Thus, have provided the basis for much of what we know about getting along with all, problem employees in particular.

Morale:

Interest in industrial morale developed rapidly after the Second World War, though this word (i.e., morale) was in widespread use even long before. It is a measure of extent (or level as either high or low) of voluntary cooperation demonstrated by an individual or a work group and of the intensity of the desire to attain common goals.

Morale is a mental condition or attitude of (individuals and) groups which determines their willingness to cooperate. Morale may also be defined as the extent to which an individual’s needs are satisfied and the extent to which the individual perceives satisfaction as stemming from his total job situation.

Morale is made up of two sets of elements-one set containing those which help to make a person satisfied with his job and a second set containing those (elements) which when, lacking, make him feel dissatisfied. The word morale generally has an implication of group reactions, i.e., what motivation does to the individual, morale does to the work group.

Morale is an individual attitude in a group endeavour and a group attitude towards the goals of an organization. In other words, morale of a group depends on the interactions among individuals in the group such as a hockey team, military unit or a riveting gang. High morale is the confident spirit of whole-hearted cooperation in a common effort.

High morale implies:

(1) Perseverance at work.

(2) Loyalty to organization and its leadership.

(3) Good discipline or the voluntary conformance to rules, regulations and orders.

(4) Strong organizational stamina.

(5) A high degree of employee interest in the job.

(6) Reasonable employee initiative.

(7) Pride in the organization.

(8) Team spirit.

(9) Zest or enthusiasm.

(10) Resistance to frustration.

(11) Staying quality.

Low morale. Morale may be depressed by:

(i) Too fine division of authority and responsibility.

(ii) Wrong or improper selection of employees.

(iii) Too small a number of real executives.

(iv) Too many foremen or supervisors.

(v) Over-reliance on organization charts.

Low morale results in:

(i) A higher rate of absenteeism and labour turnover.

(ii) Friction, Jealousy and frustration among workers.

(iii) More complaints and employee grievances,

(iv) Enemity towards management.

Many large organisations conduct morale surveys to explore how the workers feel about their working conditions, jobs, supervisors, and the company itself and such surveys generally lead to improved morale of the employees.

Factors Affecting Morale:

Factors which tend to lower or improve the employee morale are:

1. Job Factors:

a. Nature of job.

b. Fatigue and boredom associated with the job.

c. Employees interest in the job.

d. Job satisfaction.

e. Confidence on individual members of the group.

f. Confidence of different members of the group in the leadership at all levels.

g. Nature of leadership and supervision, i.e., whether the leader/supervisor is just, impartial, helpful, social minded etc.?

h. Working and environmental conditions, i.e., whether they are good and wholesome?

i. Condition of working equipment.

2. Personal Factors, such as:

i. Background,

ii. Intelligence,

iii. Age,

iv. Skill and proficiency,

v. Sex,

vi. Training,

vii. Mental and emotional condition of employee, and 

viii. Experience, etc.

3. Other Factors:

a. Organisational efficiency, i.e.,

(i) The way the organization is set up, the way the orders are given, the way information is passed up and down, the way things are provided, etc.

(ii) The way the informal organizations decide and think and work.

b. Objects of the organization, i.e., whether they are clear or they confuse the employees.

c. Unfair selections and promotions.

d. Frustrations resulting from lack of recognition, i.e., attaching more importance to junior persons and neglecting seniors.

e. Rewards and Incentives.

Methods to Measure Morale:

Level of morale may be measured by:

(A) The attitude questionnaire:

The attitude questionnaire is the method most used to measure the morale of employees. From a general survey, questions relevant to the group conditions are used to develop a morale index by assigning values to alternative answers. The questions may look like, e.g.,

Q. 1. Do you feel that you are really a part of your work group? (Check one).

a. Really a part of my work group.

b. Included in most ways.

c. Included in some ways, but not in others.

d. Do not feel I really belong.

Q. 2. How do you rate your company with others as a place to work with:

a. Very worst.

b. Worse than average.

c. Just average.

d. Better than average.

e. Very best.

(B) In-group versus out-group choices:

In-group versus out-group choices technique determines the ratio of in-group choices to out- group choices or in terms of the percent of in-group choices to choices available. The purpose of the method is to know whether an individual would like to work with the persons of his own group or with those of another group. A number of questions such as follows may be asked to ascertain the preference of an individual.

Q. 1. With whom would you prefer to work?

Q. 2. Who would make a good supervisor?

(C) Other criteria:

Other criteria used to measure morale are:

(a) Comparison of earlier and present value of productivity and waste (scrap) rate.

(b) Comparison of earlier and present rates of absenteeism and labour turn-over.

(c) Output and product quality.

(d) Complaints and grievances records.

Methods to Improve Morale:

A number of methods employed for improving morale of employees are:

(1) Introduction of profit sharing scheme in which the employees in addition to their wages share a definite percentage of profits.

(2) Giving proper status and recognition to all concerned.

(3) Consulting the group on the matters related to work to be done by them.

(4) Basing decisions on the concept of Democratic Leadership.

(5) An effective two-way communication between the workers and the management.

(6) Suitable Suggestion System.

(7) Adequate grievance handling procedure.

(8) Periodic conferences between workers and management to discuss employee-problems and difficulties.

(9) Informal talks between individual workers and the management.

(10) Adequate welfare schemes for the employees and their families.

(11) Recreational facilities and social get-together programmes for the employees and their families.

Motivation:

Certain workers generally come late, take more sick leaves or produce low quality products- perhaps they are less motivated or not motivated at all as compared to other workers. Motivation is the means or inducements which inspire or impel a person (to behave in a certain manner and) to intensify his willingness to use his capabilities and potentialities for achieving goals of the organisation in which he works. Behind Motivation (or the will to do/achieve) is mainly the psychological force; physical or physiological factors exert comparatively lesser influence.

What morale does to work-group, motivation does to an individual. Motivation moves an individual into action and urges him to work with sincerity and loyalty. Motivation of workers is very important when a supervisor wants to get things accomplished by them at right time, in right quantity and of right quality. Workers not properly motivated may not mentally accept the orders or directions with the result that the company goals may not be achieved effectively and efficiently.

Motive:

A detective or police seeks the motive (or reason) for crime, i.e., why the accused did the crime. Once the motive for crime has been uncovered, it provides an explanation for the crime. Therefore Motive is a reason for the expression of a particular ability. Motive is an idea or emotion which prompts an individual to take a certain course of action.

Motive influences the behaviour of an individual. Motives are based on physiological drives such as the innate tissue conditions of the organism to avoid pain, to need food, water, sleep, etc. Besides those based on physiological drives, there are social motives also, e.g., self-respect, social approval or recognition, etc.

Internal and External Motives:

Internal motives motivate people internally. Internal motivation starts from the ego needs of an individual.

Examples of internal motives are:

(ii) The need to get the job of one’s choice.

(ii) The illusion of self-determination and freedom.

(iii) A sense of accomplishment in doing a job well.

External motivation is stimulated by pay, incentives, praise or punishment.

Positive and Negative Motivation:

Positive motivation adds to an individual’s existing set of satisfactions, e.g.,

i. A Better and more responsible job.

ii. Higher wages, etc.

Negative motivation influences the behaviour of an individual through a threatened loss e.g.,

i. Fear of losing one’s present job.

ii. Reduced wages, etc.

Factors Affecting Motivation:

(a) Factors leading primarily towards motivation:

1. Achievement:

Personal satisfaction in job completion and problem solving.

2. Advancement:

Promotion to the higher job/level.

3. Growth:

Learning new skills which will offer greater possibility for advancement.

4. Recognition:

Acknowledgement of a job done well.

5. Responsibility and Authority in relation to one’s job.

6. Work itself:

Actual job content and its positive or negative effect on the worker.

(b) Factors leading primarily towards dissatisfaction:

1. Company Polity and Administration:

Feelings about the inadequacy of company organization and management, policies and procedures.

2. Job Security:

Tenure, company stability or instability.

3. Interpersonal Relations:

Relations with supervisors, subordinates and peers.

4. Salary:

Pay and fringe benefits.

5. Status:

Status, e.g., size of office, private secretary, air-conditioner, etc.

6. Supervision:

Competency or technical ability of supervision.

7. Working Conditions:

Physical environment associated with the job.

8. Personal Life:

Personal factors (e.g., family problems) which affect the job.

Motivational Techniques:

1, Praise the workers and give them credit for all good work done by them.

2. Take a sincere interest in subordinates as individual persons.

3. Promote healthy competition among the individual employees.

4. Find ways to develop and utilise the appeal of pride in or about the workplace. Let the subordinates feel pride in work or in job accomplishment.

5. Delegate a substantial amount of responsibility to the subordinates.

6. Fix fair wages and monetary individual or group incentives for the employees.

7. Formulate a suitable suggestion system.

8. If possible permit the employee’s participation in management matters.

9. Provide opportunities for growth and promotion.

10. Promote good and satisfying interpersonal relationships at work and outside.

11. Promote good working conditions.

12. Formulate fair, clear, firm and consistent management policies.

Besides the above-mentioned positive motivating tools, there are a few negative motivational techniques also, e.g.,

a. Reprimand.

b. Fines.

c. Demotion.

d. Layoff.

e. Discharge.

The proper proportioning of these two motivational techniques (i.e., Positive and Negative) is the mark of the skillful Manager, Executive or Supervisor.

Working, Environmental Conditions:

Human work behaviour to a great extent can be influenced by the working environments or working conditions.

Working conditions may be classed as follows:

1. Working conditions of physical nature, e.g.

a. Illumination (Lighting),

b. Heating,

c. Ventilating,

d. Air-conditioning, and

e. Noise, etc.

Improper working conditions of physical nature increase fatigue and reduce output and product quality.

2. Working conditions related to time, e.g.:

a. Hours of work (8-hours day and 40-hours week are probably best in terms of efficiency and absenteeism).

b. Rest pauses. Rest pauses such as tea and coffee breaks or otherwise are necessary to prevent excessive physiological and mental fatigue.

Scheduled rest pauses during the day were found to reduce unauthorized rest pauses and they increased the speed of work.

In the case of monitoring tasks (in which the attention demands are high) rest periods should be provided at 20- or 30-minute intervals.

In case of heavy physical works or those carried out in hot environments rest pauses should be fairly frequent.

As a general practice, rest pause should be provided before the buildup of a substantial level of fatigue.

3. Working conditions related to social situation within which individual works, e.g.:

a. Community attitude towards the objectives of the organisation.

b. Acceptance of company employees by the community.

c. Social welfare, etc.

Industrial Fatigue:

1. Working conditions of physical nature and those related to time, influence employee fatigue to a considerable extent.

2. For practical purposes, fatigue may be defined as;

(i) Negative appetite for activity; and

(ii) A reduction in the ability to do work as a consequence of previous work.

Nature of Fatigue:

Fatigue includes both mental and physical reactions as well as the phenomenon of monotony and boredom. Monotony is a state of mind caused by performing repetitive tasks. Boredom or lack of interest, is characterised by depression and a desire for change of work or activity. Fatigue occurs owing to variety of causes ranging from chemical to psychological.

Fatigue asso­ciates with it three aspects, namely:

1. Reduction in quantity of work for a given amount of effort.

2. A feeling of tiredness.

3. Physiological change, e.g., the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood caused by the breaking down of glycogen, or sugar, in the blood.

Effects of Fatigue:

1. Affects badly the muscles, nerves and mind of the workers;

2. Decreases a worker’s capacity to do more (further) work;

3. Results in loss of worker’s efficiency;

4. Introduces a feeling of tiredness and weakness;

5. Creates disinterest in the work;

6. Disturbs chemical, psychological and physiological equilibrium;

7. Gives rise to monotony and boredom;

8. Increases tendency towards making accidents; and

9. Increases absenteeism and labour turn-over rate

Causes and Elimination of Fatigue:

The various factors affecting fatigue and the methods to eliminate fatigue are briefed below:

1. Hours of work:

In general, the highest productivity per hour and less fatigue is achieved with small number of working hours per day. Perhaps an eight-hour day with a lunch break of 45 to 60 minutes is a good solution.

2. Working days of a week:

A five day week with 40 working hours (total) showed the highest hourly output.

3. Nature of work:

Complex muscular work may preferably be done with the help of suitable material handling devices. Minute and precise work imparts more fatigue. Mental task requiring continuous attention adds to fatigue rapidly. Work involving standing and abnormal posture tend to increase fatigue fast.

4. Working conditions:

Improper working conditions such as:

a. Improper light (illumination)

b. Too cold or too hot atmosphere,

c. Insufficient ventilation,

d. Presence of bad smell, fumes, dust, smoke and flash,

e. Noise,

f. Heavy protective clothings, etc., add to the fatigue of the worker.

Besides the above listed working conditions of physical nature, the surrounding social situations also add to fatigue.

5. Rest pauses:

a. Suitable and well planned rest pauses/tea-coffee breaks within the work-hours tend to reduce the build-up of fatigue.

b. In general, the duration of rest pause should be anywhere from 5 to 20 minutes, with heavier work requiring the upper limit.